Signs & Symptoms
As white blood cells are defective in children with leukaemia, affected children may experience increased episodes of fevers and infections.
These children may also be anemic as leukaemia also affects the bone marrow's production of oxygen-carrying red blood cells. This would result in pallor and makes them abnormally tired and short of breath while playing.
Children with leukaemia also tend to bruise very easily and experience frequent nose and gum bleeds.
Bleeding, even from minor wounds, might be prolonged as leukaemia destroys the bone marrow's ability to produce clot-forming platelets.
Other symptoms of leukaemia may include:
- Pain in the bones or joints, sometimes causing a limp
- Swollen lymph nodes in the neck, groin, or elsewhere
- Abnormally tired
- Poor appetite
Up to 12% of children with Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia (AML) and 6% with Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) have leukaemia which can spread to the brain and cause headaches, seizures, balance problems, or abnormal vision.
If ALL spreads to the lymph nodes inside the chest, the enlarged gland can compress on the trachea (windpipe) and the surrounding blood vessels, leading to breathing problems and interference with blood flow to and from the heart.
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What causes it
Risk for Childhood Leukaemia
Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) most commonly afflicts younger children from ages 2 to 8, with a peak incidence at age 4. But it can affect all age groups.
In the majority of cases, the cause of leukaemia is unknown. What is clear is that neither parents nor children have control over the factors that trigger leukaemia. Most leukaemias develop from non-inherited mutations (changes) in the genes of growing blood cells. And as errors occur randomly and unpredictably, there is currently no effective way to prevent most types of leukaemia.
Currently in NUH, we are studying the risk profiles of children with leukaemia to hopefully allow us to predict the risk of developing leukaemia, their chances of cure and complications from therapy. This is funded by the National Medical Research Council and A*STAR/ Singapore Cancer Syndicate.
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About the condition
Leukaemia is a cancer of the white blood cells (WBCs), which are also known as leukocytes. When a child has leukaemia, large numbers of abnormal white blood cells are produced in the bone marrow. These abnormal white cells crowd the bone marrow and flood the bloodstream, but they do not protect the body against disease as normal ones do because they are defective and immature.
As the leukaemia progresses, other types of blood cell production, including that of red blood cells and platelets are affected. In the long run, this results in a low red blood cell count or anemia. There is also an increased risk of infection caused by white cell abnormalities.
Leukaemia account for about 40% of all childhood cancers in Singapore and throughout the world. Luckily, there have been significant advances in the therapy of childhood leukaemia in Singapore so much so that 60-80% of these children are now long-term survivors and are probably cured.
Types of Childhood Leukaemia
Leukaemias can be classified into acute (rapidly developing) and chronic (slowly developing) forms. In children, by far the majority (98%) of leukaemias are acute.
Acute childhood leukaemias are also divided into Acute Lymphocytic Leukaemia (ALL) and Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia (AML). This categorization depends which cell line (mother cell) the leukaemia start from. Approximately 80% of children with leukaemia have ALL, and about 20%1-6 have AML.
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Diagnosis and Treatment Options
Diagnosis
A physical examination will be performed to check for signs of infection, anaemia, abnormal bleeding, and swollen lymph nodes. The child’s abdomen is also examined to see if there is an enlarged liver or spleen which can occur with some cancers in children.
In addition, medical history of the family will be taken and full blood count (FBC) taken to measure the numbers of white cells, red cells, and platelets in the child's blood. A blood smear will also be taken to check for certain specific types of abnormal blood cells.
From the results of the physical examination and preliminary blood tests, further tests like those below may be needed:
- A bone marrow biopsy and aspiration - marrow samples are removed from the body (usually from the back of the hip bone) for testing.
In NUH, we have a highly comprehensive panel of routine and investigational tests that can help diagnose subgroup and prognosticate the type of leukaemia with exceedingly high accuracy.
- A lumbar puncture (spinal tap) - where a sample of spinal fluid is removed from the lower back and examined for evidence of abnormal cells. This is to determine if the leukaemia has spread to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
Bone marrow or lymph node samples will be examined and additional testing will be done to determine the specific type of leukaemia. In addition to these basic laboratory tests, cell evaluations are also generally done, including genetic studies to distinguish between specific types of leukaemia, as well as certain features of the leukaemia cells. Children will receive anesthesia or sedative medications for any painful procedures.
Treatment Options
The goal in treatments for AML and ALL is to attain continuous complete remission of the leukaemia (when there is no more evidence of cancer cells in the body). Types and intensities of treatments are dependent on the patient and the features of his/her condition. Some of the factors include age and initial white blood cell count.
All children with ALL are treated with chemotherapy, but the dosages and drug combinations may differ.
To decrease the chance of leukaemia invading the central nervous system, patients receive intrathecal chemotherapy which administers cancer-killing drugs into the cerebrospinal fluid around the brain and spinal cord.
Radiation treatments to eradicate leukaemia in the brain may also be given for certain high-risk patients.
During this period, close monitoring by a paediatric oncologist is imperative. Intensive leukaemia chemotherapy may incur side effects like hair loss, nausea and vomiting. As treatment progresses, the cancer treatment team will monitor the child closely for those side effects.
In some instances, a bone marrow transplant may be necessary in addition to, or instead of chemotherapy, depending on the type of leukaemia a child has. Healthy bone marrows are injected into the child's body during the transplant.
Once remission is achieved, maintenance chemotherapy is then used to keep the child in remission. This is given in cycles over a period of 2 to 3 years to keep the cancer from reoccurring. Leukaemia will almost always relapse (reoccur) if this additional chemotherapy isn't given. There are also cases when the cancer returns even though maintenance chemotherapy is given, and other forms of chemotherapy will then be necessary.
With the proper treatment, the outlook for children who are diagnosed with leukaemia is excellent. Childhood ALL has >98% remission rate after 1 month of therapy and > 80% are cured with our current research protocols. Recently ~60% of children with AML are curable under our recent research protocol. All children then require regular maintenance chemotherapy and other treatment to continue to be cancer-free.
Cure rates will also differ depending on the specific features of a child's disease but most childhood leukaemias have very high remission rates. And the majority of these children can achieve permanent remission and be cured of the disease.
In NUH, we have a dedicated multidisciplinary team to manage children with cancer especially those with leukaemia. We are able to provide the complete therapy from diagnosis to chemotherapy, radiation therapy even various type of stem cell transplantation.
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Clinical Outcome
Acute Lymphocytic Leukaemia (ALL) Clinical Outcomes
Our research protocols have been successfully improved the results of treatment of children with ALL in Singapore since 1988. Our cure rates have improved from 62% in 1988-1996 to 84% in 1997-2002.
Each year, our centre sees many cases of paediatric cancer cases of which half are patients with leukaemia. Our 5-year survival rate for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (good, intermediate and high risk) is almost identical to the world's best, St Jude's Hospital, USA.
Currently our multi-centre Malaysia-Singapore trials have allowed highly accurate prediction of outcome and tailoring therapy to maximise the chance of cure and minimise toxicity.
This is now expanded into a multi-centre study sponsored by National Medical Research Council and A*STAR/Singapore Cancer Syndicate.
Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia (AML) Clinical Outcomes
NUH started implementing the Medical Research Council (MRC) AML 10 protocol in their treatment of AML patients since Sept 1996. In this new protocol, treatments are of a shorter timeframe of treatment (5 months instead of the conventional 2 years) in the treatment of AML. And using this form of treatment, the team has achieved a significantly better 3-year overall (74% vs. 35%), event-free (77% vs. 20%) and disease-free (83% vs. 31%) survival. They were also more likely to achieve a complete remission than non-MRC AML 10 patients. About 60% of these children are expected to be cured. This is now expanded into a multi-centre study sponsored by National Medical Research Council and A*STAR/Singapore Cancer Syndicate.
Our blood and bone marrow transplantation (BMT) programme started in 1983. Today, we do bone marrow transplants, peripheral blood transplants and cord blood transplants. In addition, we perform complicated transplants including mismatched adult donors and mismatched dual cord blood donors. These types of transplants allow patients who previously did not have a matched donor a chance of cure. Together with St Jude investigators, we are also using cellular therapeutics to treat highly aggressive cancers.
To reduce BMT-related complications, we design patient-tailored BMT protocols as well as reduced intensity regimens.
Our BMT survival rates are comparable to the best centers in the world.
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Support Group
Children's Cancer Foundation
We have excellent support for the parents and family of our patients provided in the form of a family service centre. This centre is sponsored by the Children's Cancer Foundation. Here, we have two full- time play therapists/social workers to work with the children and assist care-givers with their concerns, questions and the coping of their sick children. http://www.ccf.org.sg/
Child Life Programme
Child Life Programme strives to adopt a holistic approach in the care of our young patients and their families through therapeutic play and developmentally appropriate interventions and creative activities. The programme engages in expressive therapy which uses use of the creative arts (drawing, dancing, music, drama, poetry, etc) as a form of therapy.
- Hospitalisation and illnesses can sometimes disrupt normal life experiences and have an adverse impact on the child's growth and development.
- The stress from hospitalization and treatment may interfere with a child's optimal response to medical treatment and care. This can affect future experiences in the hospital.
If you would like your child to see the Play Specialist, please discuss your request with your doctor who will assess their suitability.
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Individual Therapy Sessions
Medical and Developmental play sessions.
Address specific needs of the children, siblings and their caregivers.
Special ward events and volunteer programmes
All services are free of charge for our paediatric patients.
For more information, please contact Child Life Programme at 6772 2445.
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